Talking about History

'''Chaturvedi''' is a word describing a person who is proficient not only in the [[vedic]] branch into which he was born, but in all four [[Vedas]]. The word "Chaturvedi" comes from the words "chatur," meaning four, and "vedi," meaning one who has learned the Vedas. Becoming a Chaturvedi was considered a significant achievement, which carried with it an elevated social status. Legend holds that it takes 16 human lives for a soul to master the four Vedas, the holy books of unlimited knowledge. If one masters all the Vedas in a single human life, this superhuman achievement earns one the title of Chaturvedi.

'''Talking about History'''

Chaturvedi is an Indian family name (chatur = four, vedi = one who has learned the Vedas).

A brahmin family name indicating that the title bearer's forefathers were proficient in all of the four Vedas (including the vedic branch one is born into). This was considered a significant achievement and an elevated social status. Legend has it that it takes 16 human lives for one to master the four vedas, the holy books of unlimited knowledge. If one were to master all the vedas in one human life, that was indeed a super human achievement and therefore the title Chaturvedi.

Chaturvedis are also known as Mathur Chaturvedis. People who belonged to Mathura and know as 'Mathura Ke Choubey'. Among the Mathura ke Choubeys, there is one classification as 'Mithe'(sweet) and another as 'Kadwe'(bitter). Mithe choubey belongs to the group of people who negotiated peace with the Muslim invaders and left their colonies and chose to settle down some where else, Kadwe choubeys belong to the group who did not negotiate with the Muslim rulers and chose to stay back and fight for their home land by engageing in guerrila warfare with the invadersand therefore Kadwe (bitter)
Mathur Chaturvedis still have their roots in Mathura and they are all bound together by the Mathur Chaturvedi Mahasabha and usually they have get-togethers that comprise of Chaturvedis living in a particular city. Chaturvedi Sabhas ( meetings) of Kanpur and other cities of UP are famous for the large number of gatherings. Annual Mathur Chaturvedi Mahasbaha ( a very large gathering ) is held every year in Mumbai and prominent Chaturvedis, Chaturvedis from all over India and other personalities are invited to the meetings.

==Origins==

There are also some anecdotes as to how Chaturvedis came to India. One belief is that they were priests in Alexander's army who later decided to settle after his retreat.
The pride and urge and fight in some ways could be attributed to such military ties. Some people also find physical features of Chaturvedis (fairer complexion, physical build) more akin to European roots. How ever which is a lot contradictry as their are evidences of chaturvedi wrestlers in Shoorshen's army also helped Shri Krishna getting their kingdom back and defeating Kansa.
Their roots are also to be said long back during aryan culture and dissendent of some particular tirbe setteled in the foot hills of Kashmir and River Indus(Todays Northern Frontier , now in Pakistan), after several invasions and search of food forced them to migrate once again in smaller groups and search for green pastures.
Their traditions are difftrent but quite similar to Persians and Romans, as groups from same tribe have been said fleed away towards Europe also. However not much is documented but still history speaks at times.

Some Chaturvedi's also keep other surnames like Mishra, Pathak, and Choubey.
Chaturvedi's major population is in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India, but have moved to all the states and are present in all the states.

==Practices==

Being Brahmin, they are strict Vegetarians and usually they don't smoke and drink also. Chaturvedis are known for their unique traditions among the Brahmins and are usually fair skinned compared to other clans. The strict followers of Chaturvedi traditions don't have onion, garlic either.



At a glance(Hindusim)

Introduction
Hinduism is one of the world's oldest religions, and has over 900 million adherents worldwide. Hinduism is not a single doctrine, and there is no single founder or teacher.

• Hinduism originated around the Indus Valley near the River Indus in modern day Pakistan
• It is over 3,000 years old
• About 80% of the Indian population regard themselves as Hindu.
• Hindus believe in a universal eternal soul called Brahman, who created and is present in everything.
• But they believe worship other deities such as Ram, Shiva, Lakshmi and Hanuman, recognising different attributes of Brahman in them.
• Hindus believe that existence is a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, governed by Karma.
• Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the previous life was lived.
• The Vedas are the most ancient religious Hindu text and define the truth.
• Hindus believe that the texts were received by scholars directly from God and passed onto generations by word of mouth.
• Hindus celebrate many holy days, but the Festival of Lights, Diwali is the most well known.

History

Early history of Hinduism

Hinduism has a long and complex history. It is a blend of ancient legends, beliefs and customs which has adapted, blended with, and spawned numerous creeds and practices.

Thugs

The original Thugs were bands of roving criminals in India who strangled and robbed travellers. Originally these gangs committed murder following precise religious rites to honour Kali, the Hindu goddess of destruction.

Beliefs


Hindus recognise one God, Brahman, the eternal origin who is the cause and foundation of all existence.

Moksha

Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the previous life was lived

The cycle of life

Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of successive lives (samsara) and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the previous life was lived (karma).

Burning funeral pyres on the banks of the River Ganges ©

In a lifetime people build up karma, both good and bad, based on their actions within that lifetime. This karma affects their future lives and existences. People must take responsibility for their actions either within this life time or the next. Death is a key part of this cycle and is treated with specific importance. Death is the last samsara (cycle of life) referred to as the 'last sacrifice'.

Moksha is the end of the death and rebirth cycle and is classed as the fourth and ultimate artha (goal). It is the transcendence of all arthas. It is achieved by overcoming ignorance and desires. It is a paradox in the sense that overcoming desires also includes overcoming the desire for moksha itself. It can be achieved both in this life and after death.

What happens after death

It is preferable for a Hindu to die at home. Traditionally a candle is lit by the head of the deceased. The body is then placed in the entranceway of the house with the head facing south. The body is bathed, anointed with sandalwood, shaved (if male) and wrapped in cloth. It is preferable for cremation to take place on the day of death. The body is then carried to the funeral pyre by the male relatives and prayers are said to Yama, the god of death. Sometimes the name of God (Ram) is chanted. While doing this the pyre is circled three times anti-clockwise. This is usually done by the male relatives of the family, lead by the chief mourner.
On the funeral pyre the feet of the body are positioned pointing south in the direction of the realm of Yama and the head positioned north towards the realm of Kubera, the god of wealth. Traditionally it is the chief mourner who sets light to the pyre. This is done by accepting flaming kusha twigs from the Doms' who are part of the Untouchable Hindu caste responsible for tending to funeral pyres. The body is now an offering to Agni, the god of fire.

Why cremation?

The cremation of the body is important for three main reasons:
• It controls the pollution created by death
• It allows the family to be brought back into society because death causes separation
• It releases the soul of the deceased properly so that it can continue to the next life, this continues samsara
• There are some exceptions to this rule. Young babies who have not yet been named, holy men and members of the Untouchables (the lowest Hindu caste) are buried.
Water is sacred
After cremation the ashes are collected and usually scattered in water. The River Ganges is considered the most sacred place to scatter ashes. Similarly, Benares (the home of Siva, Lord of destruction) is a preferred place of death because it takes the pollution out of death and makes it a positive event. Anyone who dies here breaks the cycle of life and achieves moksha (enlightenment or release).
It is important to remember that Hinduism is not only a religion but also a cultural way of life. Some practices and beliefs may not be common to all Hindus as regional differences occur.

The city of Benares
Worship
Puja

Hindu worship, or puja, involves images (murtis), prayers (mantras) and diagrams of the universe (yantras).
Central to Hindu worship is the image, or icon, which can be worshipped either at home or in the temple.

Individual rather than communal

Hindu worship is primarily an individual act rather than a communal one, as it involves making personal offerings to the deity.
Worshippers repeat the names of their favourite gods and goddesses, and repeat mantras. Water, fruit, flowers and incense are offered to god.

Worship at home

The majority of Hindu homes have a shrine where offerings are made and prayers are said.
A shrine can be anything: a room, a small altar or simply pictures or statues of the deity.
Family members often worship together. Rituals should strictly speaking be performed three times a day. Some Hindus, but not all, worship wearing the sacred thread (over the left shoulder and hanging to the right hip). This is cotton for the Brahmin (priest), hemp for the Kshatriya (ruler) and wool for the vaishya (merchants).

Temple worship

At a Hindu temple, different parts of the building have a different spiritual or symbolic meaning.
• The central shrine is the heart of the worshipper
• The tower represents the flight of the spirit to heaven.
• A priest may read, or more usually recite, the Vedas to the assembled worshippers, but any "twice-born" Hindu can perform the reading of prayers and mantras.

Religious rites
Hindu religious rites are classified into three categories:
• Nitya
o Nitya rituals are performed daily and consist in offerings made at the home shrine or performing puja to the family deities.
• Naimittika
o Naimittika rituals are important but only occur at certain times during the year, such as celebrations of the festivals, thanksgiving and so on.
• Kamya
o Kamya are rituals which are "optional" but highly desirable. Pilgrimage is one such.

Worship and pilgrimage

Pilgrimage is an important aspect of Hinduism. It's an undertaking to see and be seen by the deity.
Popular pilgrimage places are rivers, but temples, mountains, and other sacred sites in India are also destinations for pilgrimages, as sites where the gods may have appeared or become manifest in the world.

Kumbh Mela

Once every 12 years, up to 10 million people share in ritual bathing at the Kumbh Mela festival at Allahabad where the waters of the Ganges and Jumna combine.
Hindus from all walks of life gather there for ritual bathing, believing that their sins will be washed away.
The bathing is followed by spiritual purification and a ceremony which secures the blessings of the deity.

River Ganges

The river Ganges is the holiest river for Hindus.

Varanasi

This city, also known as Benares, is situated on the banks of the Ganges and is one of the most important pilgrimage centres.
It is said to be the home of Lord Shiva where legend has it that his fiery light broke through the earth to reach the heavens.
A Hindu who dies at Varanasi and has their ashes scattered on the Ganges is said to have experienced the best death possible.
Hindu sacraments are called 'sanskars' and the sacraments performed at the time of a wedding are called 'Vivah Sanskar'.
This sanskar marks the start of the second and the most important stage of life called the 'Grihistha Ashrama' which involves setting up of a new family unit.
Two individuals who are considered to be compatible form a lifelong partnership at this ceremony in which the responsibilities and duties of a householder are explained.
The precise details and rituals performed in a wedding ceremony vary from region to region and often take several hours to complete.
The main stages of a Hindu wedding are:
• Jayamaala
o Firstly, the bride's parents welcome the bridegroom and his family at the boundary of the house where the wedding is taking place. A red kum-kum (kind of powder) mark is applied to their forehead. Members from both families are formally introduced, marking the start of relationship between two families. The bride and the bridegroom then exchange garlands (jayamaala) and declare: "Let all the learned persons present here know, we are accepting each other willingly, voluntarily and pleasantly. Our hearts are concordant and united like waters."
• Madhu-Parka
o The bridegroom is brought to a specially decorated altar called 'mandap' and offered a seat and a welcoming drink - a mixture of milk, ghee, yoghurt, honey and sugar.
• Gau Daan and Kanya Pratigrahan
o 'Gau' means cow and 'Daan' means donation. Nowadays, the symbolic exchange of gifts, particularly clothes and ornaments takes place. The groom's mother gives an auspicious necklace (mangala sootra) to the bride. Mangla sootra is the emblem of marital status for a Hindu woman. 'Kanya' means the daughter and ' Pratigrahan' is an exchange with responsiveness on both sides. The bride's father declares that their daughter has accepted the bridegroom and requests them to accept her.
Vivaha-homa
A sacred fire is lit and the Purohit (Priest) recites the sacred mantras in Sanskrit. Oblations are offered to the fire whilst saying the prayers. The words "Id na mama" meaning "it is not for me" are repeated after the offerings. This teaches the virtue of selflessness required to run a family.
Paanigrahan

A sacred fire is lit and the Purohit (Priest) recites the sacred mantras in Sanskrit.
This is the ceremony of vows. The husband, holding his wife's hand, says "I hold your hand in the spirit of Dharma, we are both husband and wife".
Shilarohan and Laaja Homa
Shilarohan is climbing over a stone/rock by the bride which symbolises her willingness and strength to overcome difficulties in pursuit of her duties. Both gently walk around the sacred fire four times. The bride leading three times and the fourth time the groom leads. He is reminded of his responsibilities. The couple join their hands into which the bride's brothers pour some barley which is offered to the fire symbolising that they all will jointly work for the welfare of the society. The husband marks the parting in his wife's hair with red kumkum powder for the first time. This is called 'sindoor' and is a distinctive mark of a married Hindu woman.
Sapta-Padi
This is the main and the legal part of the ceremony. The couple walk seven steps reciting a prayer at each step. These are the seven vows which are exchanged. The first for food, the second for strength, the third for prosperity, the fourth for wisdom, the fifth for progeny, the sixth for health and the seventh for friendship. In some regions, in stead of walking the seven steps, the bride touches seven stones or nuts with her right toe. A symbolic matrimonial knot is tied after this ceremony.

A symbolic matrimonial knot is tied after this ceremony
Surya Darshan and Dhruva Darshan
The couple look at the Sun in order to be blessed with creative life. They look in the direction of the Dhruva (Polar star) and resolve to remain unshaken and steadfast like the Polar star.
Ashirvada (Blessings)
The couple are blessed by the elders and the priest for a long and prosperous married life.
It is important to clarify two misconceptions about Hindu marriages: arranged marriages and child marriages.

The couple are blessed by the elders and the priest for a long and prosperous married life
Hindu scriptures prohibit use of force or coercion in marriages.
Arranged marriages are based on agreement from both the bride and the groom, and should not be confused with forced marriages.
In the Vedic period, child marriages were strictly prohibited. Later, due to political and economical changes, some new social traditions started which deviated from the Vedic teachings.
Child marriages and the associated tradition of dowry were some of the deviations which reformist movements in modern times have attempted to correct. Child marriages are now extinct. Hindus accept the minimum age of marriage set by the law of the country they live in.
Hindus believe in one God, Brahman, who was the originator of everything. They believe that his work is now done, however, and the task of creating, maintaining and destroying the world is up to three main gods, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, and other lesser gods.
Hindus worship various gods depending on the characteristics they wish to emulate and according to their needs.


The Vedas

These are the most ancient religious texts which define truth for Hindus.
They got their present form between 1200-200 BCE and were introduced to India by the Aryans.
Hindus believe that the texts were received by scholars direct from God and passed on to the next generations by word of mouth.
Vedic texts are sometimes called shruti, which means hearing and for hundreds, maybe even thousands of years, the texts were passed on orally.
Contents of the Vedas
The Vedas are made up of four compositions, and each veda in turn has four parts which are arranged chronologically.
• The Samhitas are the most ancient part of the Vedas, consisting of hymns of praise to God.
• The Brahmanas are rituals and prayers to guide the priests in their duties.
• The Aranyakas concern worship and meditation.
• The Upanishads consist of the mystical and philosophical teachings of Hinduism.
The Samhitas
• Rig-Veda Samhita (c. 1200 BCE) is the oldest of the four vedas and consists of 1028 hymns praising the ancient gods.
• Yajur-Veda Samhita is used as a handbook by priests performing the vedic sacrifices.
• Sama-Veda Samhita consists of chants and tunes for singing at the sacrifices.
• Atharva-Veda Samhita (c. 900 BCE) preserves many traditions which pre-date the Aryan influence and consists of spells, charms and magical formulae.
The Upanishads
The Upanishads were so called because they were taught to those who sat down beside their teachers. (upa=near, ni=down, shad=sit).
These texts developed from the Vedic tradition, but largely reshaped Hinduism by providing believers with philosophical knowledge.
The major Upanishads were largely composed between 800-200 BCE and are partly prose, partly verse.
Later Upanishads continued to be composed right down to the 16th century. Originally they were in oral form.
The early Upanishads are concerned with understanding the sacrificial rites
Central to the Upanishads is the concept of brahman; the sacred power which informs reality.

Whilst the priests (brahmins) had previously been the ones who, through ritual and sacrifice, had restricted access to the divine, now the knowledge of the universe was open to those of the high and middle castes willing to learn from a teacher.
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita, or "Song of the Lord" is part of the sixth book of the Mahabharata, the world's longest poem.
Composed between 500 BCE and 100 CE, the Mahabharata is an account of the wars of the house of Bharata.
It is one of the most popular Hindu texts and is known as a smriti text (the remembered tradition). This is considered by some to be of less importance than shruti (the heard text, such as the Vedas). It has, nevertheless, an important place within the Hindu tradition.
The Bhagavad Gita takes the form of a dialogue between prince Arjuna and Krishna, his charioteer, an incarnation of the supreme God, Vishnu.
Arjuna is a warrior, about to join his brothers in a war between two branches of a royal family which would involve killing many of his friends and relatives.
He wants to withdraw from the battle but Krishna teaches him that he, Arjuna, must do his duty in accordance with his class and he argues that death does not destroy the soul.
Krishna points out that knowledge, work and devotion are all paths to salvation and that the central value in life is that of loyalty to God.
The Ramayana
Composed in the same period, the Ramayana is one of India's best known tales.
It tells the story of Prince Rama who was sent into exile in the forest with his wife, Sita, and his brother, Lakshamana.
Sita was abducted by the evil demon Ravana but ultimately rescued by Prince Rama with the help of the Monkey God, Hanuman.
The story is written in 24,000 couplets.
The symbolism of the story has been widely interpreted but basically is the story of good overcoming evil. Many people have said that it is a story about dharma or duty.

History

Traditional view
Hinduism has a long and complex history. It is a blend of ancient legends, beliefs and customs which has adapted, blended with, and spawned numerous creeds and practices.
Please note:
The 'traditional' view of Hindu history, as described in this section, has been challenged by modern scholars.
In particular, various scholars have advanced the following theories:
• Hindu religion pre-dated 3000BCE
• 'Aryan', a Sanskrit word meaning 'noble', does not refer to an invading race at all
• The Aryans did not invade but migrated gradually
• The Aryans were native to the area, or found there long before the alleged invasion
• Hinduism originated solely in India
• There is ongoing controversy over which version of Hindu history is the correct one.
Prehistoric religion:
(3000-1000 BCE)
The earliest evidence for elements of the Hindu faith dates back as far as 3000 BCE.
Archaeological excavations in the Punjab and Indus valleys (right) have revealed the existence of urban cultures at Harappa, the prehistoric capital of the Punjab (located in modern Pakistan); and Mohenjo-daro on the banks of the River Indus.
Archaeological work continues on other sites at Kalibangan, Lothal and Surkotada.
The excavations have revealed signs of early rituals and worship.
• In Mohenjodaro, for example, a large bath has been found, with side rooms and statues which could be evidence of early purification rites.
• Elsewhere, phallic symbols and a large number statues of goddesses have been discovered which could suggest the practice of early fertility rites.

This early Indian culture is sometimes called the Indus Valley civilisation.
Pre-classical (Vedic)
(2000 BCE - 1000)
Some time in the second millennium BCE the Aryan people arrived in north-west India.
The Aryans (Aryan means noble) were a nomadic people who may have come to India from the areas around southern Russia and the Baltic.
They brought with them their language and their religious traditions. These both influenced and were influenced by the religious practices of the peoples who were already living in India.
Worship
• The Indus valley communities used to gather at rivers for their religious rituals.
• The Aryans gathered around fire for their rituals.
• The Indus valley communities regarded rivers as sacred, and had both male and female gods.
• The Aryan gods represented the forces of nature; the sun, the moon, fire, storm and so on.
Over time, the different religious practices tended to blend together.
Sacrifices were made to gods such as Agni, the God of Fire, and Indra, the God of storms.
Writings
Aspects of the Aryan faith began to be written down around 800 BCE in literature known as the Vedas. These developed from their oral and poetic traditions.
You can see some of the Vedic tradition in Hindu worship today.
The Caste System
The Aryans also introduced the varna system (varna = estates or classes) to India, which may have contributed to the caste system we see today.
Some think that it developed from a simpler two-tier structure consisting of nobles at the top, and everyone else below.
Others say that it was established and practised by the priests who divided society into three parts:
• The priests (or Brahmins).
• The warriors (the Kshatriyas).
• The ordinary people.

The rise of Jainism and Buddhism
(800-600 BCE)
Buddhism and Jainism emerged from India around 800-600 BCE, a period of great cultural, intellectual and spiritual development, and both had an enormous influence on Hinduism.
Some of the previously accepted truths of the religion were beginning to be questioned and the religious leaders were being asked to defend their views and teachings.
Furthermore, the old tribal structure of society was diminishing.
The result was an increasing number of breakaway sects, of which Buddhism and Jainism were probably the most successful.
Buddhism
Buddha was born in the sixth century BCE as Gautama Siddhartha. He was a member of the powerful warrior class.
He renounced the pleasures and materialism of this world to search for the truth. Through this quest he developed his basic principles for living.
Buddhism became the state religion of India in the third century BCE.
Buddhism had a great influence on Hinduism, from the way it used parables and stories as a means of religious instruction, to its influence on Indian art, sculpture and education.
Jainism
The founder of the Jains, Mahavira ("the great hero"), was a near contemporary of the Buddha's and he rejected the caste system, along with the Hindu belief in the cycle of births.
Mahavira was the twenty fourth of the Tirthankaras, the "Path-makers", or great teachers of Jainism.
They developed the concept of three ways, or "jewels" - right faith, right knowledge and right conduct.
The Jains were never a numerically large group but their influence was out of all proportion to their size and distribution.
Mahatma Gandhi, whilst himself not a Jain, embraced their doctrine of non-violence to living things.
The End of the Era
During the last centuries of the previous era, the Mauryan empire ruled much of India. The most famous ruler, Asoka, although a Buddhist himself, thought that the Brahman religion was worthy of respect.
Brahmanism revived with the end of Mauryan rule, and at the same time devotion to individual gods, such as Vishnu and Siva, began to grow.
Some of the early Hindu images date from this period.
The Start of the Current Era
The first 400 years CE were a time of upheaval in the Hindu heartland. A variety of invaders ruled the area, bringing injections of their own cultures and beliefs.
Hinduism strengthened, and the cults of individual gods grew stronger. Goddesses, too, began to attract followers.
The Rise of "Hinduism"
The years to 1000 CE saw Hinduism gaining strength at the expense of Buddhism.
Some Hindu rulers took military action to suppress Buddhism. However it was probably developments in Hinduism itself that helped the faith to grow.
Hinduism now included not only the appeal of devotion to a personal god, but had seen the development of its emotional side with the composition and singing of poems and songs. This made Hinduism an intelligible and satisfying road to faith to many ordinary worshippers.
The Arrival of Islam
Islam arrived in the Ganges basin in the 7th century, but its influence was not really felt until the Turks arrived in the 11th and 12th centuries CE.
Islam and Hinduism were in conflict because, although the mystical traditions of both religions had some common ground, Muslim rulers sought to conquer Hindu territories and, from the 17th century, to assert the superiority of Islam.
Islam was established — and flourished — chiefly in areas where Buddhism was in a process of slow decline, that is mainly around modern-day Pakistan, Bangladesh and Kashmir.
Hinduism remained strongest in the south of India.
Western Influence
Hinduism as it is known and recognised today has been greatly affected by the influence of western thought and practices.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, missionaries from Europe attempted to convert Hindus to Christianity with varying degrees of success.
This challenged Hindu leaders to reform many practices and in some cases, revive old practices.
This period has been recognised as a period of Hindu revivalism.
Rammohan Roy
An early leader in this field was Rammohan Roy (1772-1833), a scholar who spoke Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Greek, Latin and Sanskrit alongside his native Bengali.
He read most of the religious scriptures from around the world and discovered that there was little difference between them.
In 1828, he founded the Brahmo Samaj, based on the teachings of the Upanishads.
Whilst he based much of his work on the teachings of the Upanishads, his social outlook was progressive and he was keen to develop education and particularly the establishment of western sciences into Indian culture.
Rammohan Roy died in Bristol of meningitis while on a visit to Europe. There is a statue of him at College Green in Bristol.
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

Ramakrishna Paramahamsa ©
Another school of Hinduism developed under the influence of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836-86) who put much greater emphasis on devotion to God.
He combined the trend of popular Hinduism with its many images with a belief in a loveable Almighty God, for he could see God in many forms.
He preached without a complicated theology and without an over-reliance on the scriptures.
It was a pluralist approach to Hinduism which helped it to find its feet in the modern world.
Swami Vivekananda

Swami Vivekananda ©
The work of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa was continued and extended by Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) who, after 12 years of ascetic study and discipline, was responsible for promoting the Hindu tradition and thought in the west.
He taught that the divine is in everything and promoted the Ramakrishna Mission which is well known for its social work as well as being a focus for Hindu religious thought.

Aryan Invasion Theory


Controversial
One of the most controversial ideas about Hindu history is the Aryan invasion theory.
This theory, originally devised by F. Max Muller in 1848, traces the history of Hinduism to the invasion of India's indigenous people by lighter skinned Aryans around 1500 BCE.
The theory was reinforced by other research over the next 120 years, and became the accepted history of Hinduism, not only in the West but in India.
But many people argue that there is now evidence to show that Muller, and those who followed him, were wrong.
Others, however, believe that the case against the Aryan invation theory is far from conclusive.
The matter remains very controversial and highly politicised. The article below sets out the case made by those who believe that the Aryan invasion theory is seriously flawed.
The case against the Aryan invasion theory
The Aryan invasion theory was based on archaeological, linguistic and ethnological evidence.
Later research, it is argued, has either discredited this evidence, or provided new evidence that combined with the earlier evidence makes other explanations more likely.
Some historians of the area no longer believe that such invasions had such great influence on Indian history. It's now generally accepted that Indian history shows a continuity of progress from the earliest times to today.
The changes brought to India by other cultures are not denied by modern historians, but they are no longer thought to be a major ingredient in the development of Hinduism.
Dangers of the theory
Opponents of the Aryan invasion theory claim that it denies the Indian origin of India's predominant culture, and gives the credit for Indian culture to invaders from elsewhere.
They say that it even teaches that some of the most revered books of Hindu scripture are not actually Indian, and it devalues India's culture by portraying it as less ancient than it actually is.
The theory was not just wrong, some say, but included unacceptably racist ideas:
• it suggested that Indian culture was not a culture in its own right, but a synthesis of elements from other cultures
• it implied that Hinduism was not an authentically Indian religion but the result of cultural imperialism
• it suggested that Indian culture was static, and only changed under outside influences
• it suggested that the dark-skinned Dravidian people of the South of India had got their faith from light-skinned Aryan invaders
• it implied that indigenous people were incapable of creatively developing their faith
• it suggested that indigenous peoples could only acquire new religious and cultural ideas from other races, by invasion or other processes
• it accepted that race was a biologically based concept (rather than, at least in part, a social construct) that provided a sensible way of ranking people in a hierarchy, which provided a partial basis for the caste system
• it provided a basis for racism in the Imperial context by suggesting that the peoples of Northern India were descended from invaders from Europe and so racially closer to the British Raj
• it gave a historical precedent to justify the role and status of the British Raj, who could argue that they were transforming India for the better in the same way that the Aryans had done thousands of years earlier
• it downgraded the intellectual status of India and its people by giving a falsely late date to elements of Indian science and culture

The Caste System
One feature of Indian society, despite attempts by some Hindu reformers to outlaw it, is the caste system (jati) which ranks society according to occupation.
Caste comes from a Portuguese word, and it is often applied inaccurately to different systems of separating layers of society.
Varnas are the historical division of society into 4 broad classes.
Jatis form the complex multi-layered present-day system.
Varnas
Traditionally, there were four main varnas, plus one group of outsiders:
• The Brahmins, or priests:
o the highest varna, believed to have emerged from Brahma's mouth.
• The Kshatriyas:
o the warrior or ruling class who were made from Brahma's arms.
• The Vaishyas:
o merchants or artisans who came from Brahma's thighs.
• The Shudras:
o the unskilled labourers and servants who emerged from Brahma's feet. These were the lowest class, or varna.
• The Untouchables:
o those too lowly to be within the varna system.
Jatis
Over many centuries, a complex system of castes, or jatis, developed in India. These were exclusive social groups defined by birth, marriage and occupation.
The higher a person's birth, the greater the blessings.
Background
The caste system grew out of two main strands of thought:
• Hierarchy is natural: The belief that a hierarchical social structure is part of the divine intention for natural order.
• Purity: The need to emphasise the importance of ritual purity and impurity.
Caste Today
Members of the upper castes consider the lowest castes to be ritually unclean. Marrying someone from a different caste, whilst not officially outlawed, is generally not recognised.
Today, caste barriers have largely broken down in the large cities. "Untouchability" has been abolished by law.
However, loyalty to a caste is much harder to eliminate and it still provides a sense of community and belonging, particularly in country areas.

Aryan History

PERIOD UNDER THE ARYANS
Origin of the Aryans
Opinions differ regarding the original home of the Aryans. The most accepted view is that the region between Poland to the Central Asia might have been of the Aryans. They were said to be semi- nomadic people, who started moving from their original home towards the west, south and east. The branch which went to Europe were the ancestors of the Greeks, Romans, Celts and Teutons. Another branch went to Anatolia. The great empire of the Hitties evolved from the mixture of these immigrants with the original people. The branch which remained were the ancestors of the Slavonic people. The group which moved south came to conflict with the west Asian civilization. In course of their journey towards the east or south a group of Aryans had settled in Iran. They crossed the Hindukush and entered India through Afghanistan and captured the greater part of the northern India. They came to be known as Indo-Aryans to distinguish them from the others who spoke a language different from those who settled in western Asia and Europe.
The Indo-Aryans entered Punjab and the other north-western part of India. They moved towards south-east and eastwards into the Ganga Valley. The Aryans were pastoral Nomads. They settled in villages. The region which the Aryans occupied was known as Sapta Sindhu. Moving further eastwards they settled along the Ganga and Jamuna. In due course of time the whole of northern India were under the Aryans and it was called Aryavarta or the land of the Aryans. The period of Aryan settlement was between 2500 and 1500BC. The early Aryans were divided into many tribes. A few among them are Anus, Druhyus, Yadus, Turvasas and Purus. They settled on either side of the river Saraswati. They were involved in fighting among themselves. Besides these tribal warfare the Aryans were engaged in struggles with the dark skinned people or Dasyus. The Dasyus were the Dravidians who occupied the regions of the Indus valley civilization. The superiority of the Aryans resulted in the Dravidian submission and retirement to the south.
Political Organization
Family served as the basis of the both social and political organization. Families together formed the grama. Villages together formed is and they turn formed the janas. The community was patriarchical and each tribe was under the chief whose position was hereditary. The rastra was ruled by the king which was normally hereditary. The king led the tribe in battle, and protected the people. The Purohita was one of the important signatory. He was the sole associate of the king his friend, philosopher and guide. The Senani the leader of the army, and Gramani the head of the village. The main duty of the king was the protection of his subjects, property, defence and maintenance of peace. The king was not an autocrat he was controlled by two popular assemblies Sabha and Samiti. These assemblies brought forth the people's view on various issues. The Sabhas also discharged legal duties like providing justice. Individual ownership of property was recognized. The land was a property owned by the family. The property passed on in a hereditary manner from father to son.
Economic Condition
The Aryans who were semi-nomadic people also domesticated animals which helped them in the activities of agriculture and other pastoral and hunting acts. Agriculture consisted the major share of their economy. Canals to provide irrigation was a significant feature of this occupation. Coins were unknown and trade was through the Barter system. Craft was not a popular profession. The lack of good roads might have hampered trade, but river navigation was existing. Specialization in areas such as carpentry, smithy, weaving, pottery, etc had been taking place.
LIFE IN THE ARYAN SOCIETY
Family being the basis of the Aryan social life needed to be a healthy bond. Monogamy was the usual rule but polygamy was also practiced. Women played an important role in the family. They also excelled in education. Apata Visvara and Ghosa were a few who even composed mantras. Both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food were common. Wheat and barley was the common food grains. Drinks included the Soma and Sura which were intoxicating and was drunk during festivals.
The dress consisted of two or three garments- an under garment, garment and a cloak. These were made of wool or skin and colored yellow and red. Gold ornaments such as necklaces, earrings, anklets, and bracelets were common and was worn by both men and women. Women enjoyed equal status and received education with the men. They also freely participated in public life.
Religion
The Aryans worshipped many gods and goddess. Most of the objects they worshipped were the personification of the forces of nature. The religious beliefs of the Aryans and its essential elements were contained in the Rig Veda. It was based on the beliefs that
1. The numerous gods and goddess were personifications of whatever that was noble splendid and striking in nature .
2. The common people sought refugee under these powers who did good answer as evil. To get the good offerings as food and drinks has to be made.
3. Fire was the means of messengers who carried the offerings to the gods . This was done amidst the chanting of hymns of praise .
There were numerous deities, classified under terrestrial, atmospheric, and celestial group. Agni, Indra and varuna were the chief deities. They also included Agni, vayu, surya, prithivi,etc. Gods and goddess were worshipped with simple ceremonials known as Yajna or sacrifices.
Extent of Aryans in India
The Aryans were said to have been spread into four divisions of the country as portrayed by Manu
• Brahmavarta
• Braharishi Desha
• Madhya Desha
• Aryavarta
(a) The Brahmavarta or the land of Gods was the region lying between the rivers Saraswati and Drishadwati It also included parts of Kurukshetra as mentioned in the Mahabharatha.
(b) The Braharishi Desha or the country of the holy sages. Comprised the territories of the Kurus, Matsya, Panchalas and Swsenas. Today they are known as Thaneshwar, Eastern Rajputana, the Doab and Mathura district.
(c) The Madhya Desa or the middle country occupied the region lying between the Himalayas and Vindhyas.
(d) The Aryavarta occupied the region between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas from the east to west.
Though a physical terrain segregated North and South India and resulted in the development of a Dravidian culture, yet the Aryans influenced the religious thoughts of the Dravidians
LATER ARYAN PERIOD (VEDIC PERIOD)
The later vedic period is said to have begun after the composing of the Atharva Veda, Yajur veda and Sama veda. This period indicated changes in the political, social economic and religious conditions of the life of the Aryans. These changes were different from those in the early vedic period during the composition of the Rig Veda.
Political Condition
The Rig vedic Aryans were divided into several tribes. Their was frequent internal strife among them. The weaker tribes were absorbed into the stronger ones and thus the kingdoms and larger areas of residence emerged. The political influence of the Aryans extended towards the east and south. The Aryan now established a powerful kingdom in the Deccan, to the north of the river Godavari. The mode of succession continued to be hereditary. The expansion of the territory also resulted in the increased domination of the king assisted by a hierarchy of nobility. These nobles were assigned official duties. Thus an administrative machinery developed. The king now had a council of advisers which included the kings relatives, his courtiers, heads of various departments. The purohita (the priest ), the senani (the commander), the suta (the charioteer), the Samgrahitr (the treasurer ), tax collector, etc. were the individuals which assisted in the kings activities. The role of the popular assemblies was important. A notable feature of this period was the extinction of the Samiti. The sabha transformed from being a popular village assembly, continued as a court or judicial assembly.
Social Condition
The need to perform the ceremonial yajnas required the services of a highly trained priests who were skilled in the religious matters. This group came to assume the title of the Brahmanas. They occupied a high status and were respected and honoured by the king.
The constant inter tribal fighting for establishing supremacy, and struggle with the original inhabitants gave birth for the need of persons skilled in the warfare. Thus arose the new class of the Kshatriyas. Remaining people in the Aryan society were called Vaisyas. The group who were not Aryans were called Sudras. These separation in the society was on the basis of the profession they pursued. Gradually the Aryans were divided into the four varnas, succession to these in course of time became hereditary. The caste system became rigid, Education was confined to the upper classes. An Aryan's life was divided into stages which began with Upanayana, which was the inception of the pupil to education. After a period of 12 years study of the Vedas, Brahmanas, Upanishads, Ithihasa, Puranas, Grammer, Ethics etc. the individual could chose one of the four ashramas i.e. Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Sanyasa, Vanaprastha.
Religious Condition
Religion and philosophy in the later Vedic period became more confirmed with elaborate sacrifices. The doctrines of Karma, Maya, soul, Mukti were established. Brahma, Vishnu and Maheswara became the important gods who were worshipped.
LITERATURE IN THE VEDIC PERIOD
The Vedas
The vedas were the sources of reconstructing the vedic period. The oldest being the Rigveda, The Samaveda, Yajurveda and Adharvaveda had their own significance. The sama veda contains the verses from the Rigveda. The hymns in it were relevant to the soma sacrifice .
The Yajurveda also consist of hymns from the Rig Veda, more than half of this is in prose to facilitate the performance of sacrifices. It depicts the social and religious condition of this period. The Atharva Veda contains philosophic speculations, popular cults and superstitions.
The Brahmanas
They are prose of the sacrificial ceremonies. These explanatory treatises lay emphasis on ritualism. They mark the transition from Vedic to classical Sanskrit. It also marks the period which marks the advance of the Aryans from the Panchala country to the Vidha (North Bihar).
The Vedangas and the Upavedas
These are said to be supplementary sections of the Vedic literature. These gives us idea about Jotish (Astronomy), Medicine (Ayurveda), Dhanurveda (war), Gandharvaveda, (music) etc.
The Vedanta
It is the philosophy taught in most of the Upanishads.
The Upanishads
This contains the main idea that constitute the intellectual aspect of the Hindu philosophy. They do not lay emphasis to rites, ceremonies and austerities. The Upanishads are dated between 800 BC and 500 BC. The Upanishads are about 100 in number. The Brahadaranyaka Upanishads, Chandogva Upanishad, Aitreya Upanishad are a few. The Upanishads reflects the richness and universality of the Indian culture. They are said to be the thinking power of the Brahmana and the Kshatriyas.
LITERATURE IN THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD
The Epics
They are the Ramayana and the Mahabharatha. They introduce us to a period of transformation in the social and religious institutions of the Vedic age
The Ramayana written by Valmiki is said a poetic legend based on mythology. It portrays the ideal man- god Rama and the ideal woman Sita. The sacrifices made by the characters for the preservation of truth appealed to the people.This was edited by the Brahmanas in course of time to convert it a book of devotion.
The Mahabharatha which consist of 18 parvas (sections) contains about 100,000 verses. This is an encyclopedia of history, morals and religion.
Puranas
These are legends connected with epics and law books. They are 18 in number and are mostly recognized in North India . The Vishnu Purana, for example, should treat of five subjects namely primary creation, secondary creations, Genealogies of gods and patriachs reigns of various Manus and history of ancient dynasties. The Vayupurana is one of the oldest the Puranas. It was edited during the age of Guptas when there was a great revival of the Sanskrit language. The other Puranas include Matsya and Brahmanda which gives us account of the kings up to the imperial Gupta dynasty with other contemporaries.
Laws of Manu
Also known as Manav Dhramshastra in Sanskrit, it comprises of 2684 couplets arranged in twelve chapters. It is the earliest of law books. The laws of Manu forms the foundation of the court of law in India under the name of Hindu law. The book makes a distinction between varna and jatis. The varnas were in the order of the occupations pursued by the people. This was given as below,
• the learned, literate and priestly order
• the fighting or the governing class
• the trading and agricultural group
• the common folk, labourers
The composition of this may be between 200BC and 200AD by a sage named Bhrigu.







Aryan Invasion Theory


Controversial
One of the most controversial ideas about Hindu history is the Aryan invasion theory.
This theory, originally devised by F. Max Muller in 1848, traces the history of Hinduism to the invasion of India's indigenous people by lighter skinned Aryans around 1500 BCE.
The theory was reinforced by other research over the next 120 years, and became the accepted history of Hinduism, not only in the West but in India.
But many people argue that there is now evidence to show that Muller, and those who followed him, were wrong.
Others, however, believe that the case against the Aryan invation theory is far from conclusive.
The matter remains very controversial and highly politicised. The article below sets out the case made by those who believe that the Aryan invasion theory is seriously flawed.
The case against the Aryan invasion theory
The Aryan invasion theory was based on archaeological, linguistic and ethnological evidence.
Later research, it is argued, has either discredited this evidence, or provided new evidence that combined with the earlier evidence makes other explanations more likely.
Some historians of the area no longer believe that such invasions had such great influence on Indian history. It's now generally accepted that Indian history shows a continuity of progress from the earliest times to today.
The changes brought to India by other cultures are not denied by modern historians, but they are no longer thought to be a major ingredient in the development of Hinduism.
Dangers of the theory
Opponents of the Aryan invasion theory claim that it denies the Indian origin of India's predominant culture, and gives the credit for Indian culture to invaders from elsewhere.
They say that it even teaches that some of the most revered books of Hindu scripture are not actually Indian, and it devalues India's culture by portraying it as less ancient than it actually is.
The theory was not just wrong, some say, but included unacceptably racist ideas:
• it suggested that Indian culture was not a culture in its own right, but a synthesis of elements from other cultures
• it implied that Hinduism was not an authentically Indian religion but the result of cultural imperialism
• it suggested that Indian culture was static, and only changed under outside influences
• it suggested that the dark-skinned Dravidian people of the South of India had got their faith from light-skinned Aryan invaders
• it implied that indigenous people were incapable of creatively developing their faith
• it suggested that indigenous peoples could only acquire new religious and cultural ideas from other races, by invasion or other processes
• it accepted that race was a biologically based concept (rather than, at least in part, a social construct) that provided a sensible way of ranking people in a hierarchy, which provided a partial basis for the caste system
• it provided a basis for racism in the Imperial context by suggesting that the peoples of Northern India were descended from invaders from Europe and so racially closer to the British Raj
• it gave a historical precedent to justify the role and status of the British Raj, who could argue that they were transforming India for the better in the same way that the Aryans had done thousands of years earlier
• it downgraded the intellectual status of India and its people by giving a falsely late date to elements of Indian science and culture

Talking about History

At a glance(Hindusim)

Introduction
Hinduism is one of the world's oldest religions, and has over 900 million adherents worldwide. Hinduism is not a single doctrine, and there is no single founder or teacher.

• Hinduism originated around the Indus Valley near the River Indus in modern day Pakistan
• It is over 3,000 years old
• About 80% of the Indian population regard themselves as Hindu.
• Hindus believe in a universal eternal soul called Brahman, who created and is present in everything.
• But they believe worship other deities such as Ram, Shiva, Lakshmi and Hanuman, recognising different attributes of Brahman in them.
• Hindus believe that existence is a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, governed by Karma.
• Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the previous life was lived.
• The Vedas are the most ancient religious Hindu text and define the truth.
• Hindus believe that the texts were received by scholars directly from God and passed onto generations by word of mouth.
• Hindus celebrate many holy days, but the Festival of Lights, Diwali is the most well known.

History

Early history of Hinduism

Hinduism has a long and complex history. It is a blend of ancient legends, beliefs and customs which has adapted, blended with, and spawned numerous creeds and practices.

Thugs

The original Thugs were bands of roving criminals in India who strangled and robbed travellers. Originally these gangs committed murder following precise religious rites to honour Kali, the Hindu goddess of destruction.

Beliefs


Hindus recognise one God, Brahman, the eternal origin who is the cause and foundation of all existence.

Moksha

Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the previous life was lived

The cycle of life

Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of successive lives (samsara) and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the previous life was lived (karma).

Burning funeral pyres on the banks of the River Ganges ©

In a lifetime people build up karma, both good and bad, based on their actions within that lifetime. This karma affects their future lives and existences. People must take responsibility for their actions either within this life time or the next. Death is a key part of this cycle and is treated with specific importance. Death is the last samsara (cycle of life) referred to as the 'last sacrifice'.

Moksha is the end of the death and rebirth cycle and is classed as the fourth and ultimate artha (goal). It is the transcendence of all arthas. It is achieved by overcoming ignorance and desires. It is a paradox in the sense that overcoming desires also includes overcoming the desire for moksha itself. It can be achieved both in this life and after death.

What happens after death

It is preferable for a Hindu to die at home. Traditionally a candle is lit by the head of the deceased. The body is then placed in the entranceway of the house with the head facing south. The body is bathed, anointed with sandalwood, shaved (if male) and wrapped in cloth. It is preferable for cremation to take place on the day of death. The body is then carried to the funeral pyre by the male relatives and prayers are said to Yama, the god of death. Sometimes the name of God (Ram) is chanted. While doing this the pyre is circled three times anti-clockwise. This is usually done by the male relatives of the family, lead by the chief mourner.
On the funeral pyre the feet of the body are positioned pointing south in the direction of the realm of Yama and the head positioned north towards the realm of Kubera, the god of wealth. Traditionally it is the chief mourner who sets light to the pyre. This is done by accepting flaming kusha twigs from the Doms' who are part of the Untouchable Hindu caste responsible for tending to funeral pyres. The body is now an offering to Agni, the god of fire.

Why cremation?

The cremation of the body is important for three main reasons:
• It controls the pollution created by death
• It allows the family to be brought back into society because death causes separation
• It releases the soul of the deceased properly so that it can continue to the next life, this continues samsara
• There are some exceptions to this rule. Young babies who have not yet been named, holy men and members of the Untouchables (the lowest Hindu caste) are buried.
Water is sacred
After cremation the ashes are collected and usually scattered in water. The River Ganges is considered the most sacred place to scatter ashes. Similarly, Benares (the home of Siva, Lord of destruction) is a preferred place of death because it takes the pollution out of death and makes it a positive event. Anyone who dies here breaks the cycle of life and achieves moksha (enlightenment or release).
It is important to remember that Hinduism is not only a religion but also a cultural way of life. Some practices and beliefs may not be common to all Hindus as regional differences occur.

The city of Benares
Worship
Puja

Hindu worship, or puja, involves images (murtis), prayers (mantras) and diagrams of the universe (yantras).
Central to Hindu worship is the image, or icon, which can be worshipped either at home or in the temple.

Individual rather than communal

Hindu worship is primarily an individual act rather than a communal one, as it involves making personal offerings to the deity.
Worshippers repeat the names of their favourite gods and goddesses, and repeat mantras. Water, fruit, flowers and incense are offered to god.

Worship at home

The majority of Hindu homes have a shrine where offerings are made and prayers are said.
A shrine can be anything: a room, a small altar or simply pictures or statues of the deity.
Family members often worship together. Rituals should strictly speaking be performed three times a day. Some Hindus, but not all, worship wearing the sacred thread (over the left shoulder and hanging to the right hip). This is cotton for the Brahmin (priest), hemp for the Kshatriya (ruler) and wool for the vaishya (merchants).

Temple worship

At a Hindu temple, different parts of the building have a different spiritual or symbolic meaning.
• The central shrine is the heart of the worshipper
• The tower represents the flight of the spirit to heaven.
• A priest may read, or more usually recite, the Vedas to the assembled worshippers, but any "twice-born" Hindu can perform the reading of prayers and mantras.

Religious rites
Hindu religious rites are classified into three categories:
• Nitya
o Nitya rituals are performed daily and consist in offerings made at the home shrine or performing puja to the family deities.
• Naimittika
o Naimittika rituals are important but only occur at certain times during the year, such as celebrations of the festivals, thanksgiving and so on.
• Kamya
o Kamya are rituals which are "optional" but highly desirable. Pilgrimage is one such.

Worship and pilgrimage

Pilgrimage is an important aspect of Hinduism. It's an undertaking to see and be seen by the deity.
Popular pilgrimage places are rivers, but temples, mountains, and other sacred sites in India are also destinations for pilgrimages, as sites where the gods may have appeared or become manifest in the world.

Kumbh Mela

Once every 12 years, up to 10 million people share in ritual bathing at the Kumbh Mela festival at Allahabad where the waters of the Ganges and Jumna combine.
Hindus from all walks of life gather there for ritual bathing, believing that their sins will be washed away.
The bathing is followed by spiritual purification and a ceremony which secures the blessings of the deity.

River Ganges

The river Ganges is the holiest river for Hindus.

Varanasi

This city, also known as Benares, is situated on the banks of the Ganges and is one of the most important pilgrimage centres.
It is said to be the home of Lord Shiva where legend has it that his fiery light broke through the earth to reach the heavens.
A Hindu who dies at Varanasi and has their ashes scattered on the Ganges is said to have experienced the best death possible.
Hindu sacraments are called 'sanskars' and the sacraments performed at the time of a wedding are called 'Vivah Sanskar'.
This sanskar marks the start of the second and the most important stage of life called the 'Grihistha Ashrama' which involves setting up of a new family unit.
Two individuals who are considered to be compatible form a lifelong partnership at this ceremony in which the responsibilities and duties of a householder are explained.
The precise details and rituals performed in a wedding ceremony vary from region to region and often take several hours to complete.
The main stages of a Hindu wedding are:
• Jayamaala
o Firstly, the bride's parents welcome the bridegroom and his family at the boundary of the house where the wedding is taking place. A red kum-kum (kind of powder) mark is applied to their forehead. Members from both families are formally introduced, marking the start of relationship between two families. The bride and the bridegroom then exchange garlands (jayamaala) and declare: "Let all the learned persons present here know, we are accepting each other willingly, voluntarily and pleasantly. Our hearts are concordant and united like waters."
• Madhu-Parka
o The bridegroom is brought to a specially decorated altar called 'mandap' and offered a seat and a welcoming drink - a mixture of milk, ghee, yoghurt, honey and sugar.
• Gau Daan and Kanya Pratigrahan
o 'Gau' means cow and 'Daan' means donation. Nowadays, the symbolic exchange of gifts, particularly clothes and ornaments takes place. The groom's mother gives an auspicious necklace (mangala sootra) to the bride. Mangla sootra is the emblem of marital status for a Hindu woman. 'Kanya' means the daughter and ' Pratigrahan' is an exchange with responsiveness on both sides. The bride's father declares that their daughter has accepted the bridegroom and requests them to accept her.
Vivaha-homa
A sacred fire is lit and the Purohit (Priest) recites the sacred mantras in Sanskrit. Oblations are offered to the fire whilst saying the prayers. The words "Id na mama" meaning "it is not for me" are repeated after the offerings. This teaches the virtue of selflessness required to run a family.
Paanigrahan

A sacred fire is lit and the Purohit (Priest) recites the sacred mantras in Sanskrit.
This is the ceremony of vows. The husband, holding his wife's hand, says "I hold your hand in the spirit of Dharma, we are both husband and wife".
Shilarohan and Laaja Homa
Shilarohan is climbing over a stone/rock by the bride which symbolises her willingness and strength to overcome difficulties in pursuit of her duties. Both gently walk around the sacred fire four times. The bride leading three times and the fourth time the groom leads. He is reminded of his responsibilities. The couple join their hands into which the bride's brothers pour some barley which is offered to the fire symbolising that they all will jointly work for the welfare of the society. The husband marks the parting in his wife's hair with red kumkum powder for the first time. This is called 'sindoor' and is a distinctive mark of a married Hindu woman.
Sapta-Padi
This is the main and the legal part of the ceremony. The couple walk seven steps reciting a prayer at each step. These are the seven vows which are exchanged. The first for food, the second for strength, the third for prosperity, the fourth for wisdom, the fifth for progeny, the sixth for health and the seventh for friendship. In some regions, in stead of walking the seven steps, the bride touches seven stones or nuts with her right toe. A symbolic matrimonial knot is tied after this ceremony.

A symbolic matrimonial knot is tied after this ceremony
Surya Darshan and Dhruva Darshan
The couple look at the Sun in order to be blessed with creative life. They look in the direction of the Dhruva (Polar star) and resolve to remain unshaken and steadfast like the Polar star.
Ashirvada (Blessings)
The couple are blessed by the elders and the priest for a long and prosperous married life.
It is important to clarify two misconceptions about Hindu marriages: arranged marriages and child marriages.

The couple are blessed by the elders and the priest for a long and prosperous married life
Hindu scriptures prohibit use of force or coercion in marriages.
Arranged marriages are based on agreement from both the bride and the groom, and should not be confused with forced marriages.
In the Vedic period, child marriages were strictly prohibited. Later, due to political and economical changes, some new social traditions started which deviated from the Vedic teachings.
Child marriages and the associated tradition of dowry were some of the deviations which reformist movements in modern times have attempted to correct. Child marriages are now extinct. Hindus accept the minimum age of marriage set by the law of the country they live in.
Hindus believe in one God, Brahman, who was the originator of everything. They believe that his work is now done, however, and the task of creating, maintaining and destroying the world is up to three main gods, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, and other lesser gods.
Hindus worship various gods depending on the characteristics they wish to emulate and according to their needs.


The Vedas

These are the most ancient religious texts which define truth for Hindus.
They got their present form between 1200-200 BCE and were introduced to India by the Aryans.
Hindus believe that the texts were received by scholars direct from God and passed on to the next generations by word of mouth.
Vedic texts are sometimes called shruti, which means hearing and for hundreds, maybe even thousands of years, the texts were passed on orally.
Contents of the Vedas
The Vedas are made up of four compositions, and each veda in turn has four parts which are arranged chronologically.
• The Samhitas are the most ancient part of the Vedas, consisting of hymns of praise to God.
• The Brahmanas are rituals and prayers to guide the priests in their duties.
• The Aranyakas concern worship and meditation.
• The Upanishads consist of the mystical and philosophical teachings of Hinduism.
The Samhitas
• Rig-Veda Samhita (c. 1200 BCE) is the oldest of the four vedas and consists of 1028 hymns praising the ancient gods.
• Yajur-Veda Samhita is used as a handbook by priests performing the vedic sacrifices.
• Sama-Veda Samhita consists of chants and tunes for singing at the sacrifices.
• Atharva-Veda Samhita (c. 900 BCE) preserves many traditions which pre-date the Aryan influence and consists of spells, charms and magical formulae.
The Upanishads
The Upanishads were so called because they were taught to those who sat down beside their teachers. (upa=near, ni=down, shad=sit).
These texts developed from the Vedic tradition, but largely reshaped Hinduism by providing believers with philosophical knowledge.
The major Upanishads were largely composed between 800-200 BCE and are partly prose, partly verse.
Later Upanishads continued to be composed right down to the 16th century. Originally they were in oral form.
The early Upanishads are concerned with understanding the sacrificial rites
Central to the Upanishads is the concept of brahman; the sacred power which informs reality.

Whilst the priests (brahmins) had previously been the ones who, through ritual and sacrifice, had restricted access to the divine, now the knowledge of the universe was open to those of the high and middle castes willing to learn from a teacher.
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita, or "Song of the Lord" is part of the sixth book of the Mahabharata, the world's longest poem.
Composed between 500 BCE and 100 CE, the Mahabharata is an account of the wars of the house of Bharata.
It is one of the most popular Hindu texts and is known as a smriti text (the remembered tradition). This is considered by some to be of less importance than shruti (the heard text, such as the Vedas). It has, nevertheless, an important place within the Hindu tradition.
The Bhagavad Gita takes the form of a dialogue between prince Arjuna and Krishna, his charioteer, an incarnation of the supreme God, Vishnu.
Arjuna is a warrior, about to join his brothers in a war between two branches of a royal family which would involve killing many of his friends and relatives.
He wants to withdraw from the battle but Krishna teaches him that he, Arjuna, must do his duty in accordance with his class and he argues that death does not destroy the soul.
Krishna points out that knowledge, work and devotion are all paths to salvation and that the central value in life is that of loyalty to God.
The Ramayana
Composed in the same period, the Ramayana is one of India's best known tales.
It tells the story of Prince Rama who was sent into exile in the forest with his wife, Sita, and his brother, Lakshamana.
Sita was abducted by the evil demon Ravana but ultimately rescued by Prince Rama with the help of the Monkey God, Hanuman.
The story is written in 24,000 couplets.
The symbolism of the story has been widely interpreted but basically is the story of good overcoming evil. Many people have said that it is a story about dharma or duty.

History

Traditional view
Hinduism has a long and complex history. It is a blend of ancient legends, beliefs and customs which has adapted, blended with, and spawned numerous creeds and practices.
Please note:
The 'traditional' view of Hindu history, as described in this section, has been challenged by modern scholars.
In particular, various scholars have advanced the following theories:
• Hindu religion pre-dated 3000BCE
• 'Aryan', a Sanskrit word meaning 'noble', does not refer to an invading race at all
• The Aryans did not invade but migrated gradually
• The Aryans were native to the area, or found there long before the alleged invasion
• Hinduism originated solely in India
• There is ongoing controversy over which version of Hindu history is the correct one.
Prehistoric religion:
(3000-1000 BCE)
The earliest evidence for elements of the Hindu faith dates back as far as 3000 BCE.
Archaeological excavations in the Punjab and Indus valleys (right) have revealed the existence of urban cultures at Harappa, the prehistoric capital of the Punjab (located in modern Pakistan); and Mohenjo-daro on the banks of the River Indus.
Archaeological work continues on other sites at Kalibangan, Lothal and Surkotada.
The excavations have revealed signs of early rituals and worship.
• In Mohenjodaro, for example, a large bath has been found, with side rooms and statues which could be evidence of early purification rites.
• Elsewhere, phallic symbols and a large number statues of goddesses have been discovered which could suggest the practice of early fertility rites.

This early Indian culture is sometimes called the Indus Valley civilisation.
Pre-classical (Vedic)
(2000 BCE - 1000)
Some time in the second millennium BCE the Aryan people arrived in north-west India.
The Aryans (Aryan means noble) were a nomadic people who may have come to India from the areas around southern Russia and the Baltic.
They brought with them their language and their religious traditions. These both influenced and were influenced by the religious practices of the peoples who were already living in India.
Worship
• The Indus valley communities used to gather at rivers for their religious rituals.
• The Aryans gathered around fire for their rituals.
• The Indus valley communities regarded rivers as sacred, and had both male and female gods.
• The Aryan gods represented the forces of nature; the sun, the moon, fire, storm and so on.
Over time, the different religious practices tended to blend together.
Sacrifices were made to gods such as Agni, the God of Fire, and Indra, the God of storms.
Writings
Aspects of the Aryan faith began to be written down around 800 BCE in literature known as the Vedas. These developed from their oral and poetic traditions.
You can see some of the Vedic tradition in Hindu worship today.
The Caste System
The Aryans also introduced the varna system (varna = estates or classes) to India, which may have contributed to the caste system we see today.
Some think that it developed from a simpler two-tier structure consisting of nobles at the top, and everyone else below.
Others say that it was established and practised by the priests who divided society into three parts:
• The priests (or Brahmins).
• The warriors (the Kshatriyas).
• The ordinary people.

The rise of Jainism and Buddhism
(800-600 BCE)
Buddhism and Jainism emerged from India around 800-600 BCE, a period of great cultural, intellectual and spiritual development, and both had an enormous influence on Hinduism.
Some of the previously accepted truths of the religion were beginning to be questioned and the religious leaders were being asked to defend their views and teachings.
Furthermore, the old tribal structure of society was diminishing.
The result was an increasing number of breakaway sects, of which Buddhism and Jainism were probably the most successful.
Buddhism
Buddha was born in the sixth century BCE as Gautama Siddhartha. He was a member of the powerful warrior class.
He renounced the pleasures and materialism of this world to search for the truth. Through this quest he developed his basic principles for living.
Buddhism became the state religion of India in the third century BCE.
Buddhism had a great influence on Hinduism, from the way it used parables and stories as a means of religious instruction, to its influence on Indian art, sculpture and education.
Jainism
The founder of the Jains, Mahavira ("the great hero"), was a near contemporary of the Buddha's and he rejected the caste system, along with the Hindu belief in the cycle of births.
Mahavira was the twenty fourth of the Tirthankaras, the "Path-makers", or great teachers of Jainism.
They developed the concept of three ways, or "jewels" - right faith, right knowledge and right conduct.
The Jains were never a numerically large group but their influence was out of all proportion to their size and distribution.
Mahatma Gandhi, whilst himself not a Jain, embraced their doctrine of non-violence to living things.
The End of the Era
During the last centuries of the previous era, the Mauryan empire ruled much of India. The most famous ruler, Asoka, although a Buddhist himself, thought that the Brahman religion was worthy of respect.
Brahmanism revived with the end of Mauryan rule, and at the same time devotion to individual gods, such as Vishnu and Siva, began to grow.
Some of the early Hindu images date from this period.
The Start of the Current Era
The first 400 years CE were a time of upheaval in the Hindu heartland. A variety of invaders ruled the area, bringing injections of their own cultures and beliefs.
Hinduism strengthened, and the cults of individual gods grew stronger. Goddesses, too, began to attract followers.
The Rise of "Hinduism"
The years to 1000 CE saw Hinduism gaining strength at the expense of Buddhism.
Some Hindu rulers took military action to suppress Buddhism. However it was probably developments in Hinduism itself that helped the faith to grow.
Hinduism now included not only the appeal of devotion to a personal god, but had seen the development of its emotional side with the composition and singing of poems and songs. This made Hinduism an intelligible and satisfying road to faith to many ordinary worshippers.
The Arrival of Islam
Islam arrived in the Ganges basin in the 7th century, but its influence was not really felt until the Turks arrived in the 11th and 12th centuries CE.
Islam and Hinduism were in conflict because, although the mystical traditions of both religions had some common ground, Muslim rulers sought to conquer Hindu territories and, from the 17th century, to assert the superiority of Islam.
Islam was established — and flourished — chiefly in areas where Buddhism was in a process of slow decline, that is mainly around modern-day Pakistan, Bangladesh and Kashmir.
Hinduism remained strongest in the south of India.
Western Influence
Hinduism as it is known and recognised today has been greatly affected by the influence of western thought and practices.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, missionaries from Europe attempted to convert Hindus to Christianity with varying degrees of success.
This challenged Hindu leaders to reform many practices and in some cases, revive old practices.
This period has been recognised as a period of Hindu revivalism.
Rammohan Roy
An early leader in this field was Rammohan Roy (1772-1833), a scholar who spoke Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Greek, Latin and Sanskrit alongside his native Bengali.
He read most of the religious scriptures from around the world and discovered that there was little difference between them.
In 1828, he founded the Brahmo Samaj, based on the teachings of the Upanishads.
Whilst he based much of his work on the teachings of the Upanishads, his social outlook was progressive and he was keen to develop education and particularly the establishment of western sciences into Indian culture.
Rammohan Roy died in Bristol of meningitis while on a visit to Europe. There is a statue of him at College Green in Bristol.
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

Ramakrishna Paramahamsa ©
Another school of Hinduism developed under the influence of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836-86) who put much greater emphasis on devotion to God.
He combined the trend of popular Hinduism with its many images with a belief in a loveable Almighty God, for he could see God in many forms.
He preached without a complicated theology and without an over-reliance on the scriptures.
It was a pluralist approach to Hinduism which helped it to find its feet in the modern world.
Swami Vivekananda

Swami Vivekananda ©
The work of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa was continued and extended by Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) who, after 12 years of ascetic study and discipline, was responsible for promoting the Hindu tradition and thought in the west.
He taught that the divine is in everything and promoted the Ramakrishna Mission which is well known for its social work as well as being a focus for Hindu religious thought.


The Caste System
One feature of Indian society, despite attempts by some Hindu reformers to outlaw it, is the caste system (jati) which ranks society according to occupation.
Caste comes from a Portuguese word, and it is often applied inaccurately to different systems of separating layers of society.
Varnas are the historical division of society into 4 broad classes.
Jatis form the complex multi-layered present-day system.
Varnas
Traditionally, there were four main varnas, plus one group of outsiders:
• The Brahmins, or priests:
o the highest varna, believed to have emerged from Brahma's mouth.
• The Kshatriyas:
o the warrior or ruling class who were made from Brahma's arms.
• The Vaishyas:
o merchants or artisans who came from Brahma's thighs.
• The Shudras:
o the unskilled labourers and servants who emerged from Brahma's feet. These were the lowest class, or varna.
• The Untouchables:
o those too lowly to be within the varna system.
Jatis
Over many centuries, a complex system of castes, or jatis, developed in India. These were exclusive social groups defined by birth, marriage and occupation.
The higher a person's birth, the greater the blessings.
Background
The caste system grew out of two main strands of thought:
• Hierarchy is natural: The belief that a hierarchical social structure is part of the divine intention for natural order.
• Purity: The need to emphasise the importance of ritual purity and impurity.
Caste Today
Members of the upper castes consider the lowest castes to be ritually unclean. Marrying someone from a different caste, whilst not officially outlawed, is generally not recognised.
Today, caste barriers have largely broken down in the large cities. "Untouchability" has been abolished by law.
However, loyalty to a caste is much harder to eliminate and it still provides a sense of community and belonging, particularly in country areas.